Martial Arts, various kinds of fighting arts, with or without weapons, most of which originated in East Asia. Martial arts are now practiced throughout the world. About 100 million people participate in the martial arts as a means of self-defense, physical fitness, mental tranquility, and competition. There are about 200 distinct martial arts, and within each one are specific schools called styles or systems. These styles number in the thousands.
II. TYPES OF MARTIAL ART
Despite the array of martial arts and styles, most of them share common techniques, and so they can be organized into broad categories that facilitate understanding. The primary way of classifying martial arts is by the basic physical technique they use: striking or grappling.
The striking technique, technically referred to as percussive, uses blows with the hands, elbows, feet, knees, and head. Such popular martial arts as karate, kung fu, and tae kwon do fall under this category.
Grappling arts, on the other hand, primarily employ throwing, locking, and wrestling techniques. These arts seek to neutralize aggressive action by gaining control over an adversary without necessarily striking the person. The most popular grappling arts are jujutsu, judo, and aikido.
The martial arts can also be divided into those that prohibit weapons and those that require them. In judo, for example, competitors use only their bodies, but in many styles of kung fu, weapons represent an essential part of the basic training. Common weapons used in martial arts include swords, staffs, and spears made of wood or metal. Firearms are never used.
Martial arts can also be divided by function and philosophy into traditional and nontraditional, according to the way they are taught. Traditional teachers emphasize self-improvement, whereas nontraditionalists emphasize self-defense. When instructing their students, traditionalists focus on three priorities, in the following order: spiritual development, discipline, and aesthetic form. Nontraditional instruction accents combat, discipline, and spiritual development. Both schools of thought offer advantages to students, encouraging the cultivation of such traits as self-confidence, which can then be successfully carried over and applied to everyday life.
III. PHILOSOPHY
In their development, many of the martial
arts were influenced by Eastern philosophical and religious thought, particularly Buddhism and Daoism (Taoism). Buddhism emphasizes the role of individual seeking and effort to attain self-mastery, self-realization, and enlightenment. Daoism advocates the use of certain physical exercises and breathing exercises directed to the same end. The martial arts therefore require students to develop both their bodies and their minds. Because the martial arts give specific attention to both elements, they differ from most other sports and physical activities, which usually focus on purely physical training.
Serious martial arts students believe that the martial arts are not about fighting, but about living—that is, the principles students learn in the martial arts help provide guidance on how to act outside the training hall. In the end, martial arts schools aim to produce students who practice the martial arts to better themselves, not to dominate others. The martial arts can also produce intangible benefits for students. Studies have shown that many of those who practice the martial arts differ from the general public in that they have a lower level of anxiety, an increased sense of responsibility, and a higher level of self-esteem.
IV. PRINCIPAL MARTIAL ARTS
The world’s most popular martial arts are karate, kung fu, and tae kwon do. In these and most other martial arts, practitioners wear colored belts (or sashes in kung fu) to denote rank and advancement. A white belt indicates a novice. By passing increasingly difficult tests of competency, students move through a series of colored belts to reach black belt status. Even at the black belt status, practitioners can be at various levels. The levels of black belt (or dan, meaning 'degree' in Japanese and Korean) move from first degree, denoting a beginning black belt, to fifth degree, usually signifying a junior master. The degrees from six to ten are honorary ranks that people earn through the time they have spent practicing the martial art and the stylistic contributions they have made to it.
A. KARATE
Karate (Japanese for 'empty hand') is an unarmed method of self-defense in which a person punches, strikes, kicks, or blocks. Karate originated on the island of Okinawa in the 1600s as te (meaning 'hand') and was directly influenced by earlier methods of Chinese kung fu. Funakoshi Gichin, an Okinawan schoolteacher who became known as the father of modern karate, brought the martial art to Japan in 1922. Funakoshi added a strong philosophical element to karate, creating a separate martial art called karate-do that pays more attention to the state of mind of the student. For example, no matter what their skill level, practitioners must not brag or demean other students.
Training in karate takes place in a dōjō (meaning 'training hall'). The traditional uniform, the karate-gi, or just gi, consists of loose white trousers and a jacket fastened by the rank belt. Requirements for advancement include proficiency in three areas: the kihon (basic movements), the kata (formal exercises with a defined sequence of moves), and kumite (freestyle sparring). Each major style of karate consists of at least 12 stylized kata. Each movement within the kata has a specific purpose, and each sequence embodies the contributions of numerous masters of that style.
B. KUNGFU
Kung fu (Chinese for 'skill,' 'ability,' or 'work') employs punches, strikes, kicks, and some throws. Unlike karate, in which closed-fist maneuvers are prevalent, kung fu tends to use open-hand techniques, and many kung fu styles use such weapons as swords or staffs. Kung fu is believed to have originated in China more than 2,000 years ago, and is allegedly based on an even earlier method of combat practiced in ancient India.
Kung fu students must learn vast numbers of complex techniques to advance in rank, and sparring also makes up part of the student's repertoire. Kung fu has two main divisions, northern Chinese and southern Chinese. Each of these has several subdivisions distinguished by the types of blows used, methods of practice, and philosophy. The northern styles employ so-called soft movements that typically emphasize the lower body. The goal is to use the opponent’s strength to advantage by moving with the attack and setting the opponent off balance. The southern styles, on the other hand, display a clear preference for strength. The student is more assertive and confronts the opponent directly.
T’ai chi ch’uan (Chinese for 'great ultimate fist'), or simply t’ai chi, is the most popular style of kung fu. In fact, it is probably the world's most popular martial art because tens of millions of people in China practice it as daily exercise. It is characterized by deliberately slow, rhythmic movements that are circular and continuous. These movements are based on stylized renditions of ancient kung fu arm and foot blows.
C. TAE KWON DO
Tae kwon do (Korean for 'way of hands and feet') was founded in 1955 by a group of masters led by Korean general Choi Hong Hi. It is the national sport and pastime of Korea and is also popular throughout the world. Often referred to as Korean karate, tae kwon do is reputedly based on ancient Korean and modern Japanese methods of combat. Basic to tae kwon do are many spectacular kicks, particularly ones performed when jumping and spinning. Points are scored only with kicks to the body or head, which must cause “trembling shock' to the opponent to score. Kicks to the head score more points than those to the body.
Since 1972, tae kwon do has been organized
as a competitive sport under the World Tae Kwon Do Federation. It was chosen to
debut as an official Olympic sport at the 2000 Summer Games in Sydney, Australia.
V. SECONDARY MARTIAL ARTS
Besides the principal martial arts, there are dozens of secondary martial arts. These lack the broad popularity of karate, kung fu, and tae kwon do, but are nevertheless extremely popular in certain circles. They include jujutsu, judo, and aikido.
A. JUJUTSU
Jujutsu (Japanese for 'art of gentleness') is a method of combat that employs holds, chokes, throws, trips, joint-locks, and some kicks and strikes. Jujutsu's origins are lost to time, but experts believe that the first methods resembling the modern techniques emerged in the late 15th century and early 16th century and were part of the combat arsenal of Japanese samurai warriors. Although students initially learn jujutsu techniques one at a time, and do not combine movements, the essence of jujutsu is the ability to flow quickly from one technique to another to control an attacker.
B. JUDO
Judo (Japanese for 'gentle way') is an art
of self-defense developed from jujutsu in 1882 by Japanese educator Kano Jigoro. Like jujutsu, judo is a method of turning an opponent's force to one's own advantage through grappling and throwing skills. Instead of directly opposing the opponent’s strength, the goal is to yield to him or her, which will unbalance the opponent. This makes it easier to complete a throw.
Students practice judo in a dōjō covered by mats. The participants wear a gi similar to the one in karate, except that the material is much heavier to withstand pulling and throwing.
Judo techniques are divided into three categories: nage-waza (standing and throwing techniques), katame-waza (grappling techniques) and atemi-waza (striking techniques). Training in judo consists of randori (meaning 'free exercise') or sparring, kata ('formal exercises'), and uchikomi ('inner winding') or stationary exercise. Judo became an Olympic sport in 1964.
C. AIKIDO
Aikido (Japanese for 'way of harmony”), like judo, was derived from jujutsu. Ueshiba Morihei had a vision in 1925 that formed the basis for aikido, and he began teaching it shortly thereafter, integrating Zen elements into his art. He gave the art the name aikido in 1942. Aikido is basically noncombative in nature and is based on the principle of harmony with one's opponent.
An aikidoist attempts to lead the attacker in a generally circular path around himself or herself, which helps neutralize aggressive action by the attacker. By moving with the attacker’s force, the aikidoist gains control of the momentum. The aikidoist may then employ joint-locks, which put pressure on the joints, or another technique to immobilize the opponent.
More than 30 different styles of aikido exist today. So-called combat aikido has been made popular since 1987 through popular motion pictures.
VI. MARTIAL SPORT
A. KICKBOXING
Kickboxing is the main martial arts spectator sport because of its extensive international television coverage. The sport was first developed in Thailand hundreds of years ago, but in the 1970s it was adopted by Americans, who helped make it popular all over the world. Kickboxing techniques involve the hand techniques of Western boxing and the kicking techniques of the Eastern martial arts. Contestants wear gloves and footpads.
B. SUMO
Sumo, one of the most popular sports in Japan, pits huge men against one another in a ring. The object of the contest is to force the other wrestler out of the ring, or to force him to touch the floor inside the ring with any part of his body other than the bottom of his feet. Sumo is based on an ancient type of combat wrestling called sumai (meaning 'struggle'), which dates from 23 bc. The rules of sumo allow pushing, pulling, slapping, throwing, and grappling.
C. KENDO
Kendo (Japanese for 'way of the sword') is also called Japanese fencing. It is a sport derived from ancient swordsmanship. Although athletes originally used actual swords, they now use weapons made of bamboo called shinai. Kendo is a 20th-century derivative of the ancient Japanese martial art kenjutsu (meaning 'art of the sword'), which was used in mortal combat by the samurai.
VII. HISTORY
The martial arts originated in ancient times in East Asia, but because their beginnings are shrouded in myth and legend, it is impossible to establish their exact history. Kung fu, which may have been based on a fighting style from India, is perhaps the oldest martial art. A form of it was practiced in China more than 2,000 years ago. For many centuries, Chinese martial arts were practiced solely in China, but in the 14th century, when the island of Okinawa started paying tribute to China, knowledge of the martial arts began to spread. At several times in the 15th century, weapons were banned on Okinawa, and these restrictions stimulated the development of weaponless fighting skills.
In the 1600s, Okinawa was threatened by Japanese military attacks, and resistance fighters developed the fighting style called te, which eventually became karate. Separate martial arts also developed in Japan over the years. The modern form of sumo emerged in the late 1500s, although an ancient form of it had been practiced as early as 23 bc. In the late 1500s jujutsu was first practiced. Kano Jigoro founded judo in 1882. Okinawa fell under Japanese control in 1879, and Funakoshi Gichin took karate to Japan in 1922. He later dispatched instructors throughout the world. The martial arts first appeared in the United States in the 1840s, when Chinese immigrant laborers arrived with their knowledge of kung fu. One hundred years later, judo, kendo, and karate had reached the United States, and interest in these martial arts and in others accelerated rapidly. In 20th-century Europe, the martial arts spread quickly as well, as Asian masters traveled and shared their knowledge.
VIII. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
Since 1973, the year Chinese American actor Bruce Lee died and his famous motion picture Enter the Dragon was released, movies have been the single most influential factor behind the growing popularity of martial arts. Lee’s cinematic success spawned a global industry of the martial arts, and schools opened and flourished worldwide. During the 1970s more students took up the study of martial arts than at any time before or since. To those involved in martial arts, the years from 1972 to 1975—the height of Lee’s popularity—are often cited as the Bruce Lee era.
Since that time the martial arts have remained popular. Periodic peaks in interest have usually been tied to popular movies or television shows. These periods include the Karate Kid era (1984-1986), the Ninjamania era (1987-1989), and the Mighty Morphin' Power Rangers era (1993-1996).
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